A Short History of The Cumans

by Zoltanous

An enthralling and remarkably authentic RPG, Kingdom Come: Deliverance, has captured my attention with its meticulous attention to detail, historical accuracy, and its immersive portrayal of the medieval European landscape. Delving into its historical underpinnings, we encounter a captivating facet of European history that remains relatively obscure. Within this realm of historical exploration, a particularly intriguing faction emerges as a prominent adversary in the game: the Cumans.

A video explaining the Cumans role in the game/historically

The Cumans, a nomadic people whose domain spanned from the regions of Romania, Hungary, and Moldavia in Eastern Europe to the vast stretches of Mongolia in Inner Asia, inhabited the expansive steppe lands characterized by their flat terrain and absence of significant mountain ranges. The very fabric of Cuman culture revolved around the central role of horses, as these majestic creatures formed the backbone of their way of life. Throughout the passage of time, the Cumans assimilated with the renowned Turkic tribe known as the Qipchaqs, resulting in the formation of a confederation that boasted an amalgamation of inhabitants with distinct Asian features. However, it is worth noting that the Cumans themselves were especially renowned for their fair complexion, blond hair, blue eyes, and fair-skinned visage.

The Mongols, in due course, proved instrumental in dispersing the Cumans across various regions. Many sought refuge in Eastern Europe, where they established settlements and forged new lives. Meanwhile, others seized power in the distant realm of Egypt. As is often the case with nomadic peoples, the story of the Cumans unfolded as a captivating tale of perpetual travel and migration. The Cumans-Qipchaqs embraced a nomadic existence, a way of life predicated on the perpetual movement of their herds across the expansive landscapes of the Great Eurasian Steppe. From the 10th to the 13th century CE, they traversed these vast terrains, seeking the lushest pastures for their livestock. Consequently, the frontiers of their confederation were fluid and malleable, in stark contrast to the rigid demarcations of modern national borders. The territorial boundaries of the Cuman-Qipchaq state were not defined by fixed lines on a map; instead, they were contingent upon the nomadic routes they undertook. Wherever their journey took them, that is where their state materialized.

The absence of a centralized political authority and the lack of territorial control were precisely the factors that facilitated their expansive occupation of these lands. The confederation comprised of loosely connected tribal units, functioning as a formidable military force, led by khans who operated with autonomous agency. This decentralized structure allowed the Cumans-Qipchaqs to exert their dominance over vast territories without the need for a consolidated central power.

The map represents Cumania (in yellow), around 1200 CE. Note that this wasn’t actual “territory” in a modern sense, but roughly the area that they moved around in

The term "Cumania" was a broad and flexible concept, primarily employed by sedentary civilizations such as Western Europeans, Rus', Byzantines, Islamic societies, and Chinese chroniclers, who, interestingly enough, never ventured into the region themselves. In practice, Cumania encompassed the northern shores of the Black Sea and extended north of the Jaxartes. Its northern "border" was demarcated by the dense forests of present-day Belarus and Russia, which were less conducive to the pastoralist lifestyle embraced by the Cumans-Qipchaqs. To the south and west, these nomadic peoples roamed as far as Persia, Hungary, and the rugged Caucasus Mountains. Consequently, their commercial interests spanned a vast expanse from Central Asia, through Crimean harbors, to markets as distant as Venice. Notably, the Qipchaqs were already mentioned by the Arab emissary Ahmad ibn Fadlan, who personally journeyed to the region in the 9th century CE. Centuries later, the renowned Italian merchant Marco Polo equated Cumania with the expansive Pontic-Caspian steppe, further solidifying the understanding of its geographical scope.

The formation of the confederation between the Cumans and the Turkic Qipchaqs is a subject that veils itself in mystery, as the specific details of this amalgamation remain elusive. The Qipchaqs, also known as Kipchaks, were the early inhabitants of the eastern regions of Cumania during the 6th to 8th centuries CE. They frequently engaged in conflicts with other Turkic groups, such as the Khazars, as well as the Persian and Chinese empires. Through their martial prowess, the Qipchaqs eventually gained dominance over the Kimek Khaganate, which had flourished in the northern reaches of Kazakhstan. The intricate and ever-changing dynamics of steppe politics facilitated their mingling and integration with the Cumans, resulting in a fusion of these nomadic forces.

Above is a modern map of the spread of Qipchaq, a branch of the Turkic language family

While the Qipchaq segment of the Cuman confederation bore a distinct Inner Asian appearance owing to their Turkic lineage, the Cumans themselves presented a striking contrast. Accounts indicate that the Cumans predominantly possessed blond hair, fair skin, and blue eyes. In Slavic languages, they were referred to as Polovtsians or Polovtsy, which translates to "blond." Germanic speakers designated them as Folban, Vallani, or Valwe, all of which signify "pale," reminiscent of the term "fallow" in English. Furthermore, the Cumans were known to the Armenians as "the Blond Ones."

Their physical attributes, coupled with their formidable martial skills forged through the harsh realities of steppe life, rendered the Cuman people highly esteemed in the eyes of their contemporaries. They gained worldwide recognition for their exceptional horsemanship. Notably, within the Islamic world, many Cumans served as slave-soldiers known as mamluks, further attesting to their prowess and valued military contributions.

A Cuman on Horseback. An 1836 painting by J. Suchodolski

As the Mongol forces surged westward during the 1220s, their initial target was Persia. In their pursuit of the fleeing Persian shah, who sought refuge across the Caucasus, the Mongols inadvertently encountered the Cumans. The Cuman-Qipchaq khans had previously established a rapport with the Rus' principalities in the region. While the Cumans had engaged in frequent conflicts with the Rus' in the past, they now served as mercenary cavalry archers to many of the Rus' princes. Confronted with the Mongol onslaught, the Cumans and Rus' joined forces and embarked on an eastern march, purportedly comprising an army of more than 80,000.

The clash between the two armies transpired somewhere in what is now eastern Ukraine. The Mongols demonstrated their superiority as steppe horsemen, inflicting massive casualties by eliminating over half of the combined allied forces—an astonishing toll. The Cuman confederation swiftly disintegrated in the aftermath of this crushing defeat. The majority of survivors fled westward, seeking refuge in Europe, where they forcibly asserted themselves upon Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Balkans. A Byzantine statesman lamented the devastating consequences of their presence, as they transformed the entire region into a barren wasteland.

The Cumans posed such a significant threat to Hungary that the Magyar king extended an invitation to the Teutonic Knights to guard the eastern border. However, the rapid rise in power of the Teutonic Order led to their expulsion from Hungary within a few years, as they grew increasingly influential and assertive.

An Artist’s Rendition of the Teutonic Knights Fighting the Cumans. Illustration by Graham Turner

Continuing their desperate flight from the pursuing Mongol forces, the Cumans swiftly resumed their migration towards the relative safety of Hungary. However, both Hungary and Bulgaria failed to provide the sanctuary they sought, as the Mongol armies unleashed havoc upon these lands, resulting in the death or enslavement of numerous Cuman refugees. Nevertheless, with the eventual withdrawal of the Mongol threat around 1250 CE, many Cumans found themselves assimilating into a resurgent Magyar society. Notably, a woman named Elizabeth, known as 'the Cuman', even ascended to the illustrious position of Queen of Hungary, a testament to the assimilation and integration of the Cumans within Hungarian society. However, it is essential to note that not all Cumans were able to find refuge in Hungary. Some were forcefully compelled to retreat eastward and were conscripted into the ranks of the Golden Horde, one of the successor khanates that emerged from the vast Mongol Empire. This coerced recruitment further exemplifies the tumultuous fate that awaited certain factions of the Cuman people as they unwillingly became entangled within the Mongol sphere of influence.

The Hungarian king to the left giving chase to Cuman cavalry archers in feigned retreat to the right. Photo of a 14th-century Slovakian mural

By the 1500s, the Cumans had established permanent settlements in Hungary, adopting a village structure that mirrored that of the local population. Over time, they underwent Christianization and integration into Hungarian society. Some Cumans even attained positions as royal guards of the Hungarian kings, known as nyoger. During the 1600s, a distinction arose between the Cumans residing between the Danube and Tisza rivers, who were referred to as Kiskun, and those living to the east of the Tisza river, known as nagykun. However, the Cuman settlements faced significant destruction during the Turkish wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, with a greater number of Cumans losing their lives compared to Hungarians. The conflict resulted in the extermination of a significant portion of the Cuman population. Despite the immense losses suffered during this period, the Cumans managed to preserve their autonomy, language, and certain ethnic customs, enduring as a minority ethnic group well into the modern era. This is a testament to their resilience and determination to maintain their cultural identity, even in the face of adversity.

Kingdom Come: Deliverance credits, Umírání životem