The History of Maoist China
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) emerged as a revolutionary force between 1919 and 1921, greatly influenced by the May Fourth Movement and the growing anti-imperialist sentiments in China. The May Fourth Movement, which began in 1919, was a pivotal moment for the CCP, triggered by widespread protests against the Treaty of Versailles. This treaty failed to address China's aspirations for national sovereignty and territorial integrity, leading to disillusionment and a demand for modernization and reform.
The decision to grant German concessions in China to Japan instead of returning them to Chinese control ignited a sense of national humiliation and anti-imperialist sentiment. This, combined with internal turmoil caused by political corruption, economic inequality, and social unrest, set the stage for a widespread protest movement. The May Fourth Movement brought about an intellectual awakening and cultural renaissance.
Chinese intellectuals and students rejected traditional Confucian values and embraced Western ideas, particularly those related to science, democracy, and individualism. They called for the modernization of China, advocating for "Mr. Science" and "Mr. Democracy" as guiding principles. This intellectual movement sparked the exploration of new literary forms, poetry, and journalism to critique traditional values and promote social change.
The movement gained momentum through student-led protests and mass demonstrations. Students served as the vanguard of the movement, organizing strikes, boycotts, and public rallies to express their dissatisfaction with the government's response to imperialism. They demanded political reforms, the establishment of a democratic government, and the protection of China's sovereignty. These protests spread to other sectors of society, including workers, intellectuals, and even some members of the military. The May Fourth Movement played a crucial role in shaping the political consciousness of many young intellectuals and activists who, inspired by Marxism-Leninism and the success of the Russian Revolution, sought radical solutions to China's problems.
In 1921, a group of these intellectuals, including Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, convened in Shanghai and founded the CCP. This historic event marked the official birth of the CCP and set the stage for its future endeavors.
During its early years, the CCP grappled with defining its ideological framework and establishing a clear agenda. Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the party's leaders, championed Marxism-Leninism as the guiding ideology for the CCP. They believed that the working class should lead the revolution and establish a socialist society. To disseminate their ideas, the CCP established the periodical New Youth, which became a platform for intellectual and ideological discussions. The journal attracted many young intellectuals and students, solidifying the CCP's influence among the progressive intelligentsia. Despite initial growth, the CCP faced internal divisions and struggled for ideological supremacy, particularly regarding the role of the peasantry in the revolution. Li Dazhao advocated for a united front within the peasantry, recognizing their potential as a revolutionary force, while Chen Duxiu focused more on urban workers as the vanguard of the revolution. The CCP managed to overcome these divisions through the efforts of key figures like Mao Zedong, who emphasized the importance of agrarian revolution and the inclusion of peasants in the party's revolutionary agenda. This ideological shift played a crucial role in unifying the party and expanding its social base.
During this period, the CCP also sought to establish connections with the international communist movement. In 1920, CCP representatives attended the Second Comintern Congress in Moscow, formalizing their affiliation with the Communist Internationale. This connection provided the CCP with valuable resources, ideological guidance, and international recognition.
The First United Front, spanning from 1922 to 1927, was a significant period in Chinese history marked by the alliance between the Chinese Communist Party and the Nationalist Party (KMT). This strategic collaboration aimed to unite various factions and combat common enemies such as imperialism and warlordism. Efforts were made to bridge ideological gaps between the CCP and the KMT following the May Fourth Movement and the CCP's founding. Under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, the KMT sought to unite various forces for national rejuvenation, leading to the initiation of the alliance known as the First United Front with the CCP in 1922. This united front aimed to collectively struggle against warlords, foreign imperialism, and social inequality. However, the alliance faced challenges due to internal ideological differences, with the KMT advocating for nationalism and the CCP promoting socialism. Trust issues and deep-seated suspicions between the two parties further complicated the alliance. Additionally, the rising influence of warlords, motivated by personal gain and regional power, posed a significant obstacle to the United Front's efforts to establish a stable and united China.
These guerrilla units engaged in hit-and-run tactics, sabotage, and ambushes, effectively disrupting Japanese supply lines and weakening their control over occupied territories. The CCP's ability to mobilize the masses, implement land reforms, and promote local self-governance in the base areas further solidified its support among the rural population.
The Second Sino-Japanese War, which lasted until Japan's surrender in 1945, was a time of immense suffering and sacrifice for the Chinese people. The CCP's role in the resistance against Japanese aggression solidified its position as a major political force in China. The party's success in organizing mass resistance and its ability to effectively engage in guerrilla warfare greatly enhanced its credibility and popular support.
The end of World War II brought about a power vacuum in China, with the collapse of the Japanese occupation and the weakening of the Nationalist government. The CCP, taking advantage of this opportunity, launched a major offensive against the KMT. The Chinese Civil War, which began in 1946, marked the final stage of the CCP's rise to power.
The CCP's military successes, combined with its ability to mobilize the masses and implement land reforms, gradually eroded the KMT's support base and weakened its forces. By 1949, the CCP had gained control over most of China, and on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
The rise of the CCP from a small group of intellectuals to the ruling party of China was a result of various factors. The party's ability to adapt its strategy, mobilize the masses, and effectively carry out guerrilla warfare played a crucial role. Additionally, the CCP's focus on land reform and addressing the needs of the peasants resonated with the majority of the Chinese population, who were primarily agrarian.
The CCP's rise to power also highlighted the failures and weaknesses of the Nationalist government, which was plagued by corruption, internal divisions, and a lack of popular support. The CCP, on the other hand, was able to present itself as a revolutionary force fighting against foreign aggression and social inequality.
The CCP's rise to power during the Third Civil Revolution period was shaped by a combination of military successes, popular support, and the weaknesses of the KMT government. The party's ability to mobilize the peasantry, implement effective guerrilla warfare tactics, and address the grievances of the rural population played a crucial role in its victory.
The Third Civil Revolution period witnessed a series of significant military campaigns and battles that gradually eroded the KMT's control and bolstered the CCP's position. The CCP's focus on rural areas and its ability to implement land reforms and social welfare programs resonated with the peasants, who saw the party as a champion of their interests. This support provided the CCP with recruits, resources, and intelligence, further strengthening their forces.
The Wai-Hai campaign, in particular, was a turning point in the civil war. The CCP's massive offensive against the KMT forces showcased their military prowess and the effectiveness of their combined tactics. The capture of key cities, such as Nanjing and Shanghai, dealt severe blows to the KMT's legitimacy and morale, solidifying the CCP's control over crucial regions.
With the defeat of the KMT, the CCP established the People's Republic of China on October 1st, 1949. The new government, led by Chairman Mao Zedong, embarked on a series of sweeping reforms aimed at transforming China's political, economic, and social landscape. These reforms included land redistribution, industrialization, and the eradication of social inequality.
The Third Civil Revolution period marked a significant turning point in Chinese history. It resulted in the consolidation of power by the CCP, ending decades of internal conflict and foreign aggression. The party's ability to mobilize the masses, implement effective military strategies, and address the needs of the peasantry were key factors in its success. The establishment of the People's Republic of China ushered in a new era of governance and set the stage for the CCP's continued dominance in Chinese politics.
The early years of China's post-revolutionary economy have received limited coverage, especially outside of China. In this video essay, I aim to cover important aspects such as the first five-year plan, the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution. Prior to the economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, there is a scarcity of information on the economic development during this period. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the country faced significant challenges due to the war-devastated environment following years of armed conflict. While economic research existed within China, it remained largely inaccessible to Western academia. Some economic data produced by the Chinese bureaucracy in the 1950s was available to research centers in the Soviet Union and Japan, but dissemination to western nations was limited.
First Five-Year Plan: China's early economic development under the People's Republic followed strategies laid out by the Kuomintang (KMT) under Chiang Kai-shek. Both the KMT and the People's Republic emphasized the development of large-scale, capital-intensive manufacturing industries. Economic planners from the KMT's National Resources Commission continued their work with the People's Republic.
Economic Indicators: Various studies have been conducted to estimate economic indicators during the first plan period, including national income, gross industrial output, and gross agricultural output factors. These studies, summarized by Perkins in 1983, showed significant growth in the economy during the first nine years of the People's Republic. Industrial output and consumption improved, leading to increased income for the Chinese population. However, agricultural production lagged behind, with its growth rate similar to the population growth.
Key Statistics: The compound annual growth rates during this period were as follows: gross national income (8.88%), gross national product (6.68%), gross industrial output (17.44%), and gross agricultural output (3.78%). Notable growth rates were observed in electricity (35.03%), coal (32.17%), crude oil (71.88%), crude steel (93.32%), cement (58.03%), machine tools (77.64%), locomotives (49.99%), paper (55.18%), chemical fertilizer (92.84%), and cotton cloth (21.83%).
Shift in Agricultural Output: As many rural laborers joined the manufacturing industry, a significant portion of farming output likely shifted from the informal to the formal economy. This suggests that the actual agricultural output may have experienced slower growth. Accessing more data from Chinese source materials could provide further insights into these trends.
Importance of Study: Future studies analyzing official statistics provided by the People's Republic of China during the war recovery and first plan periods would be valuable. Understanding the early industrial success of the People's Republic can offer insights into current and future five-year plans and shed light on the Chinese Communist Party's support. It may also provide insights into why the Chinese government emphasized increasing agricultural output in the second five-year plan, known as the Great Leap Forward.
The Chinese economy experienced strong growth during the war recovery period and the execution of the People's Republic of China's first five-year plan. This growth was driven by an increase in industrial consumption and output. The early economic planning in the PRC was influenced by plans developed under the KMT and individuals who previously worked as economic planners in the KMT's National Resources Commission. The compatibility of the National Resources Commission's operations with a centrally planned economy played a role in this continuity.
During the Great Leap Forward, a socio-economic campaign launched by the CCP under Mao's leadership in 1958, China aimed to transform from an agrarian society to an industrialized socialist nation. However, this campaign had severe consequences, resulting in widespread famine and an estimated 45 million deaths according to official Chinese statistics. Mao's vision of rapid progress and revolutionary zeal drove the Great Leap Forward, but misguided policies and a lack of accurate information exacerbated the dire situation.
While Mao bears responsibility for the policies that led to the famine, it is important to differentiate between reckless miscalculation and knowingly starving millions. The deaths during the Great Leap Forward were not sanctioned or ordained from the center, unlike the Soviet Gulag. However, the policies of the Great Leap Forward and the subsequent economic crisis did result in a setback for China's economy, with some scholars suggesting a lost decade of growth. Factors such as severe drought, flooding, and the withdrawal of Soviet technical support also contributed to the setbacks during this period.
The assumption that the policies in place before 1958 could have ensured continued rapid economic growth, or that alternative policies could have achieved similar results, is crucial for the argument of a lost decade to hold any weight. However, there is limited empirical evidence to support this assumption.
One alternative to consider is the continuation of pre-Great Leap Forward policies, which focused on investment in industry with limited government support for agriculture. However, the growing sectorial imbalance in the Chinese economy during the 1950s, where agricultural growth lagged behind industrial growth, hindered the sustainability of these policies.
Another alternative is relying on aid from the Soviet Union or increased foreign trade. However, both options were impractical due to the limited magnitude of Soviet development loans and China's primarily internally-oriented economy with unfavorable global trade conditions. While the continuation of the development strategy from the first five-year plan period may seem like a viable alternative, the sectoral imbalance it created posed challenges. The agricultural sector failed to keep pace with industrial growth, leading to underutilization of industrial capacity, imbalances within the industrial sector, and difficulties in providing food for the growing urban population. The failure of the agricultural sector to grow also constrained the import of foreign products, hindered the introduction of new technology, and limited the sector's ability to contribute to overall economic growth.
Many industries such as the cigarette, canned food, sugar, vegetable oils, flour, and leather industries were operating at less than full capacity. Only the cotton textile industry achieved high capacity utilization, but it relied on raw material imports and had slow capacity growth. The slow growth of the agricultural sector also created problems in supplying food to the expanding urban sector. Grain production did not keep pace with the increasing urban population, leading to food supply shortages.
Increasing the growth rate of agricultural output was necessary to address this issue. The labor problem in Chinese agriculture wasn't about providing enough workers for the urban sector, but finding productive employment for the growing labor force. The marginal productivity of labor in agriculture was low, perpetuating rural underemployment and excessive urban migration. Increasing the growth rate of agricultural output was necessary to address this issue.
 The Chinese economy faced challenges in various industries, with many operating below capacity. The slow growth of the agricultural sector led to food shortages in urban areas. Increasing agricultural output was necessary to address this issue and provide productive employment for the growing labor force. The imbalance between the agricultural and industrial sectors also posed challenges in terms of foreign exchange, limiting the ability to import technology and meet the needs of the industrial sector. China recognized the limitations of the Soviet model and the shortcomings of previous policies, leading to the decision to embark on the Great Leap Forward.
The Great Leap Forward aimed to increase agricultural output and develop labor-intensive industries by restructuring rural areas. People's communes were established to promote rural industries and undertake construction projects. The goal was to make labor available year-round and introduce modern technology. The Great Leap Forward also emphasized local initiative, self-reliance, and need-based distribution.
The plan aimed to achieve a 25% annual increase in industrial output by focusing on both heavy and light industry. It emphasized labor-intensive processes in light industry to address underemployment in urban areas. The concept of the mass line promoted the participation of everyone and avoided bureaucracy.
The decision to embark on the Great Leap Forward carried risks due to the lack of historical precedent. However, it was seen as a necessary step to address the imbalances in the Chinese economy and achieve rapid development.However, there were substantive economic, social, and political justifications for the Great Leap Forward. Previous agricultural reforms had not effectively addressed rural underemployment and low productivity, and the Great Leap Forward aimed to address these issues by providing productive employment and developing labor-intensive industries. The timing seemed favorable with the anticipated operation of major industrial plants.
China also needed to rely more on itself as international development support from the Soviet Union diminished. The Great Leap Forward was seen as a way to promote self-reliance and meet the urgent need for increased output. The Chinese leadership recognized various contradictions in their society and aimed to address them through the simultaneous development of both modern and traditional industry and agriculture, as well as centralism and democracy.
Continuing previous policies was not feasible due to the imbalance between agriculture and industry. Solely investing in agriculture would have corrected the imbalance but at the expense of the industrialization program. The Great Leap Forward sought to increase agricultural productivity through institutional reorganization and increased traditional inputs. The alternative path of industrial sector investment in agriculture was constrained by the limited capacity of the industrial sector to supply the necessary inputs.
Examining the production of agricultural producer goods, such as tractors and chemical fertilizers, supports the conclusion that these alternatives were not viable. The rapid expansion of these industries during the Great Leap Forward showed that the disruptions caused by the policy were relatively minor. The subsequent growth in production can be attributed to decisions made during the Great Leap Forward to invest in these industries.
During the early 1960s, China shifted its focus in the fertilizer industry to smaller plants, which were about one-tenth the size of modern plants in Japan. These smaller plants were built in rural areas with the goal of having at least one in every county. The smaller size of these plants helped to save on capital construction, transport, and storage costs. This emphasis on intermediate technology plants is a significant legacy of the Great Leap Forward and provides China with a unique capacity for development.
The development of intermediate technology extended beyond the fertilizer industry. Rural electrification, for example, saw the construction of large-scale hydroelectric power stations, but also the development of small rural hydroelectric power plants. These small-scale power plants, operating as independent local units, eliminated the need for extensive power transmission lines and reduced costs.
The combination of backyard technology with advanced technology exemplifies the success of the Great Leap Forward's experimentation and trial and error approach. Evaluating the Great Leap Forward is complex, as the costs of failure were immediate and evident. However, the lessons learned from the Great Leap Forward had to be applied over a prolonged time span, yielding results in the future. It is clear that China's industrial capacity to provide inputs for modern agriculture was severely limited at the start of the Great Leap Forward, making reliance on such inputs impractical.
In reality, China's only chance to maintain the development momentum achieved in the 1950s was through a Great Leap Forward-type attempt. However, a combination of excessive enthusiasm, natural disasters, and the withdrawal of Soviet technicians led to the failure of the Great Leap Forward to achieve its objectives. The claim that the Great Leap Forward caused China to lose 10 years of growth is misleading. If China had not attempted the Great Leap Forward, it would have missed the opportunity for rapid growth. The alternative focusing solely on the agricultural sector without sufficient means to produce the necessary investment goods would have resulted in very modest and low economic growth.
Although the Great Leap Forward fell short of its goals, it contributed to China's unique development style characterized by local industry development, participation, egalitarianism, and self-reliance. The assertion that there was no significant economic growth from 1958 to 1968 overlooks important developments. China successfully overcame the agricultural bottleneck during this period, increasing grain output and laying the foundation for future growth. Additionally, China expanded its technological capabilities and underwent a revolution in social consciousness, embracing rational and scientific approaches to production and innovation.
The Cultural Revolution, which took place from 1966 to 1976, was a sociopolitical movement initiated by Mao Zedong to preserve communist ideology and eliminate perceived bourgeois and capitalist elements within Chinese society. The impact of the Cultural Revolution was complex and resulted in significant political upheaval, persecution, and social disintegration. The economy of China suffered greatly, with disruptions in education, industries, and businesses leading to economic stagnation and a decline in productivity.
The Cultural Revolution created deep divisions within Chinese society, leading to violence, persecution, and a breakdown in social cohesion. However, it also had some positive impacts on gender equality, promoting the idea that women could contribute to society on an equal footing with men. It disrupted existing power structures and created opportunities for individuals from lower social strata to rise to influential positions, challenging the dominance of the old elite and promoting a more inclusive political landscape.
The issuance of the May 16th notification by the CCP in 1966 played a crucial role in sparking the Cultural Revolution. This document, which emerged during a period of political struggle within the CCP, was used by Chairman Mao Zedong to regain his authority and consolidate his power. The notification called for the establishment of revolutionary groups and the launch of a nationwide campaign against bourgeois and counterrevolutionary elements.
At the core of the early stages of the Cultural Revolution were the Red Guards, radicalized student groups inspired by Mao's call for mass movements. These passionate young individuals, armed with Mao's little red book, became a powerful force in Chinese society. However, their actions led to chaos and social disintegration, with schools and universities being shut down and authority figures targeted.
During this time, mass rallies were held, attended by millions of Red Guards. These rallies often resulted in the destruction of historical sites and cultural institutions. The middle stages of the Cultural Revolution saw Mao consolidating his power and his teachings becoming the guiding ideology for the nation. The Red Guards gained immense influence and targeted individuals deemed counter-revolutionary or representing traditional elements of society, leading to further social division and violence.
One of the most significant impacts of this period was the widespread destruction of traditional institutions, leading to a loss of education and cultural heritage. The push for radical egalitarianism resulted in economic disruption and decline in productivity, exacerbating poverty and stagnation. Social fragmentation and breakdown of familial ties also occurred as people turned against each other.
In the later stages of the Cultural Revolution, power struggles intensified within the CCP, leading to factional conflicts and violence. Some party officials began to realize the negative consequences of the revolution and initiated political reforms to curb its excesses. The movement had severely impacted China's economy, causing stagnation, food shortages, and decreased productivity.
Following the decline of the Cultural Revolution, there was an urgent need to rebuild China's economy and address the challenges caused by the revolutionary policies. This led to a shift towards economic reforms and the implementation of market-oriented measures that would eventually transform the country's economic landscape. The later stages of the Cultural Revolution aimed at social reconciliation and healing, as efforts were made to address the deep divisions and grievances within society.
The government implemented policies to foster unity, restore social order, and rebuild trust among individuals and communities. However, the scars of the Cultural Revolution persisted, and it would take time for Chinese society to fully recover from the trauma of those years. The final stages of the Cultural Revolution saw a gradual decline in its intensity and impact, and Mao Zedong's death in 1976 marked a turning point, leading to the official end of the movement.
With Mao's passing, there was a dismantling of his legacy and a recognition of the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. China began to move away from Mao's ideas towards more corporatist-leaning policies. The evaluation of Mao's legacy is mixed, as while his initial five-year plan was successful, the negative impacts of the Great Leap Forward were inevitable.
The Cultural Revolution had a significant detrimental effect on Chinese society, tearing the social fabric of communist China and leaving lasting impacts on political decision-making to this day. During the post-Maoist capitalist era, issues such as nepotism, corruption, and fraud became prevalent, accompanied by a crumbling infrastructure and a significant wealth disparity between urban and rural populations, accounting for 35% of the nation's overall wealth inequality.
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