What Is Fascism?

by Zoltanous

The inquiry into the nature of fascism has generated significant discussion and disagreement among those aiming to define it clearly. However, efforts to provide an accurate explanation are often muddled by oversimplified or misleading interpretations, such as those from Georgi Dimitrov, Jonah Goldberg, or Umberto Eco, whose analysis I find particularly retarded. Those familiar with my perspective will note my preference for Roger Griffin’s concept of "generic fascism," which I consider the most coherent and practical framework for understanding this ideology.

Griffin proposes the notion of the "fascist minimum," a set of core traits that must be present for a movement or individual to be classified as fascist. He defines generic fascism as an encompassing term that includes various fascist entities—individuals, movements, practices, or policies. This concept might also be likened to generic national socialism or positioned within a broader "Third Way" or "Third Position" political framework. Griffin argues that fascism revolves around a central motivating force and a foundational vision for the society it aims to build. His conclusions stem from a methodological approach rooted in empathy, which seeks to understand the ideology from the perspective of its supporters. Ultimately, Griffin distills his analysis of fascism into a clear, single-sentence definition.

“A genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism.”

— Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism

Let’s break down the concepts here and how their synthesis is what creates Fascism. The three are: 

1. Palingenesis

2. Ultranationalism

3. Populism

Palingenesis: The concept of rebirth appears across various traditions, from spiritual renewal in rituals like baptism to the idea of reincarnation across multiple lives. However, these longstanding notions are sometimes mistakenly equated with the fascist interpretation of rebirth, leading to confusion. Roger Griffin explains that fascist rebirth is often misconstrued as a simple desire for historical revival or preserving the existing order. This misunderstanding can occur when the term is incorrectly linked to palingenesis, a concept present in diverse ideologies such as communism, conservatism, and liberalism. Political leaders frequently employ nostalgia to invoke a glorified past, as seen in slogans like "Make America Great Again," used by Presidents Reagan and Trump and referenced by Bill Clinton, or "Return to Normalcy," championed by Presidents Harding and Biden. In fascism, however, rebirth is not about restoring a lost era but about revitalizing a profound national identity through the creation of a radically new social order.

Fascism differs from conservative or reactionary ideologies, as it does not aim to merely uphold the status quo or revive past regimes. Instead, it seeks to forge a novel reality, drawing inspiration from what it views as the enduring essence of a nation’s heritage. Historian A. James Gregor notes that these core elements are often articulated through civilizational myths tied to ethnic identities, such as Germania for Germans, Romanita for Italians, Hispanidad for Spaniards, Eurasia for Russians, Hakko Ichiu for Japanese, Wenming for Chinese, and Akhand Bharat for Indians. Gregor also highlights that fascist ideology incorporates Nietzsche’s idea of the "Good European."

“A nation without a vital Myth drifts aimlessly throughout history. Myth gives purpose and meaning to the civilisation. Myth makes a people a nation, and a nation a race, and a race a contributor to the world. Myth shapes the race so that the race may fulfil the potential of its individuals. The Myth makes us conscious that we are a race, and not merely an arbitrary, purposeless, ill defined conglomerate of men and women.”

— Alfred Rosenberg, The Myth of The Twentieth Century

Fascism leverages the Aryan myth to envision a spiritually and culturally revitalized society, establishing a hierarchical order that prioritizes these values over mere historical restoration. Often described as “revolutionary organic nationalism,” it aims to overturn the existing system through diverse strategies, ranging from legal political efforts to the use of force or potential revolution. Once in power, fascism strives to usher in a new era deeply rooted in an ultranationalist, Aryan-focused ideology. This pursuit is characterized as Rooted Modernism (or Reactionary Modernism), a form of modernity infused with idealized, fundamental values. Rather than rejecting modernism outright, fascism pursues a version that transforms the contemporary state through rejuvenation or palingenesis, envisioning a modernity that replaces perceived societal decline with a future shaped by a distinct Aryan idealism, expressed through specific material and aesthetic practices unique to each fascist movement. The architectural style of stripped classicism, utilized by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, exemplifies this concept, blending classical elements with modernist aesthetics to symbolize progress anchored in a venerated past. While stripped classicism is not exclusive to fascist regimes and has been adopted by various governments to convey different ideological messages, fascist movements were drawn to its ability to represent both modern advancement and historical grandeur, promoting a future grounded in “healthy and organic” principles. The Volkswagen, conceived under Hitler’s influence as a “people’s car,” reflects this idea, embodying modernity through accessible transportation for the ideal “family.” Its design was significant enough to be featured in the 2006 “Modernism: Designing a New World” exhibition, highlighting its lasting impact.

Fascism’s ambition to launch a new era, inspired by historical virtues, resembles a phoenix rising from its ashes—a symbol of transformation and renewal. This aligns with the Hegelian notion of “sublation,” where the existing order is both negated and preserved, facilitating the emergence of a new, elevated system. Fascism seeks to dismantle the current structure while retaining select valued elements to create a societal model it considers superior. Okakura Kakuzō encapsulates this rooted modernism as a “living advaitism (non-dualism) which welcomes the new form without losing the old essence."

Ultranationalism: Ultranationalism, particularly when associated with fascist ultra-nations, is an extreme form of nationalism that prioritizes the interests of one nation or people above all others. Unlike standard nationalism, it asserts the inherent superiority of a specific nation, often accompanied by xenophobic attitudes and a mythical emphasis on national unity, portraying the nation as a singular, living entity. This ideology promotes a personified view of the nation and typically supports authoritarian rule. It lays the groundwork for fascist corporate states, advocating for collaboration across social classes. The economy is structured through organizations such as guilds, corporations, estates, or syndicates, creating a highly regulated society envisioned as a cohesive organism.

“We want to do away with class warfare. We want to accustom our people again to the idea of vocational solidarity, vocational rights and duties. The idea that master and man, the so-called employer and employee, are in opposition to each other must disappear. They must learn that they belong to each other, that they must collaborate harmoniously in human society for their mutual good and for the good of the community as a whole.”

— Engelbert Dollfuß quoted in Dollfuss: An Austrian Patriot by Fr. Johannes Messner

In certain instances, conservatism can exhibit a strain of ultranationalism distinct from fascism, characterized by xenophobia and the notion of an organic society to preserve existing or historical social structures from perceived decline. Leaders like Francisco Franco and António de Oliveira Salazar exemplify this approach, using ultranationalism to defend and maintain traditional institutions such as the monarchy and the church. These institutions are viewed as critical to upholding the power hierarchies they support. By prioritizing these entities, conservatism aims to prevent their erosion and secure the continuity of its ideological legacy.

Fascist ultranationalism, in this context, refers to:

“An overtly anti-liberal, anti-parliamentary form of nationalism (which precludes the palingenetic patriotism of De Gaulle, a Thatcher, or even Yeltsin from being fascist), but to embrace the vast range of ethnocentrisms, which arise from the many permutations in which racism can express itself as a rationalized form of xenophobia. It is this multivalence and flexibility which accounts for the way my “fascist minimum” covers the various concepts of the Italian race accommodated by Fascism just as well as Euro-Fascism (‘Europe of a hundred flags’) which has become so important since the war.”

— Roger Griffin, The Palingenetic Core of Fascist Ideology

Ethnocentrism is frequently rooted in an Aryan civilizational mythology that defines the nature of ultranationalism and constructs a cohesive historical narrative. Central to fascist ultranationalism is a strategy aimed at shielding the ideology from external disruptions while forging a future deeply anchored in its core principles. The legitimacy of this foundational myth is reinforced through:

“Deeply mythicized narratives of past cultural or political periods of historical greatness or of old scores to settle against alleged enemies.”

— Roger Griffin, The Palingenetic Core of Fascist Ideology

“Vulgarized forms of physical anthropology, genetics, and eugenics to rationalize ideas of national superiority and destiny, of degeneracy and subhumanness”. 

— Roger Griffin, The Palingenetic Core of Fascist Ideology

Fascism envisions a profound divide between a revered foundational era and the present, which it perceives as corrupted by harmful influences. It attributes this decline to external forces that have undermined the nation's authentic essence. The goal of fascism is to eradicate, dismantle, and eliminate what it deems the corrosion of modernity, paving the way for a synthesis of ultranationalism and renewal. Notably, not all fascist ideologies consistently depend on racial or eugenic rationales, as seen in Nazi Germany’s fixation on Aryanism and Nordicism. For instance, the Brazilian Integralist Action illustrates that ultranationalist movements and their myths can center on a collective, multicultural identity. Here, the emphasis is on safeguarding and rejuvenating the nation’s unique cultural heritage, rather than adhering strictly to racial purity or eugenic ideals.

Roger Griffin remarks that:

“One of the most original foundational myths, blending protochronic with Golden Age fantasies, was developed by the Brazilian Integralist Action (AIB). Given the complex racial inter-mixing in a country where indigenous peoples and the descendants of generations of Portuguese colonizers and their African slaves had intermarried through centuries, Plínio Salgado could not indulge in any scientistic notions of biological purity, eugenics or a mythic ancestral super-race.

Instead, for him, the essence of the Brazilian-ness (Brasilidade) that would provide the cohesive spiritual force needed for the country’s rebirth lay precisely in its unique ethnic and cultural blend which had made the rise of Brazil as a powerful modern economy and political nation possible. The AIB thus celebrated the very miscegenation so feared by Nazi, Legionary, Hungarist, and Ustaše racists.

Until his movement was banned by the dictator Getúlio Vargas in 1938, Salgado campaigned for Brazil to be seen as an ideal laboratory in which to demonstrate the power of a racially mixed society to revitalize a nation both spiritually and culturally, and hence politically and economically, and so lay the foundations of the ‘fourth era of humanity’- With Salgado safely exiled to Portugal, Vargas was able to promote the AIB’s conciliatory myth of racial blending under his own regime.”

— Roger Griffin, Fascism - Key Concepts In Political Theory

It’s critical to dispel the notion that ultranationalism is solely confined to the framework of a nation-state. Ultranationalism can extend beyond conventional national borders, encompassing, for instance, an entire race to form a supranational identity that transcends individual state boundaries. This is evident in cases where multicultural societies are replaced by regions defined by ethnic homogeneity, a concept known as ethno-pluralism. Rather than promoting a singular, overarching fascist state, this ideology advocates for a patchwork of distinct, self-governing regions worldwide. Additionally, ultranationalism can emerge without a formal state structure, as seen in National Anarchism, which envisions racially homogeneous communities operating without centralized governance. Regardless of its specific rationale or manifestation, the ultranationalist aim within fascism consistently focuses on uniting a group of "organic members" to realize its vision.

Populism: Populism is a political strategy that seeks to resonate with ordinary individuals who feel marginalized or suppressed by a dominant elite. The definitions of "ordinary people" and "elite" vary depending on the ideological lens applied. For instance, through a Marxist perspective, populism frames the conflict as one between the working-class proletariat and the capitalist bourgeoisie. Typically, populism mobilizes a perceived majority — often described as the "silent majority" — who believe their interests are overshadowed by a powerful minority. In conservative populism, this majority is rallied to defend traditional values and institutions, which they view as threatened by elites often labeled as "progressive intellectuals," "globalists," or "cultural reformers."

In the context of White Nationalist populism, the "ordinary people" are defined racially as "White," while the "elites" are frequently portrayed as non-White groups or specific minorities, such as Jews, accused of promoting multiculturalism. It is essential to distinguish White Nationalism from fascism. White Nationalism’s focus on preserving a racially defined White identity is inherently discriminatory, rooted in the belief of racial superiority or the need for racial separation. This ideology, which predates fascism, can manifest across various political frameworks.

Historically and today, White Nationalism and White Supremacy have appeared in different forms, including among Enlightenment-influenced liberal humanists like some of the United States’ founders. Fascism, however, explicitly rejects such liberal principles. In the U.S., systemic policies — from slavery and segregation to modern disparities in criminal justice and economic opportunities — have disproportionately harmed people of color. It is crucial to recognize that racism does not require fascism, and equating the two risks oversimplifying the manifestations of racial prejudice. For White Nationalism to transition into fascism, it would need to embrace an ultranationalist ideology that fully discards liberal and anti-fascist values. Thus, fascist populism can be characterized as:

“A generic term for the “people power” generated when enough of the ‘masses’ are effectively mobilized by mythic energies, whether spontaneous or contrived.”

— Roger Griffin, The Political Core of Fascist Ideology

Ultranationalist populism envisions the nation’s people, bound by a shared ultranational identity, as a cohesive, almost living entity that must be awakened and unified. The goal is to forge a powerful force capable of driving a sweeping transformation, aiming to build a radically new social order. This makes ultranationalist populism a palingenetic movement, one that seeks to radically renew and revive society from its perceived decline.

In this view, the "whole people" — or at least those considered true, untainted members of the nation — serve as the engine of this revolutionary change, rather than a specific class or group. Yet, in the nation’s current state of decay, most are seen as "asleep," corrupted by foreign or destructive values that betray the nation’s essence. Because of this, a dedicated vanguard is needed — a group of committed visionaries tasked with spreading the movement’s ideals and seizing power. Within this new order, some members of this vanguard will rise as a natural elite, not defined by wealth or status but by their unwavering dedication to the vision of a reborn nation and their role in making it reality. This creates a complex relationship with the masses, who are viewed both as easily swayed followers and as potential heroes capable of embracing the cause.

"This is ‘fascist socialism’: a socialism that does not aim to improve the living conditions of the working class for generic humanitarian reasons, but to reintegrate the dispossessed into solidarity with the State and its values"

— Adriano Romualdi, Fascism as a European Phenomenon

Conclusions

Drawing on Roger Griffin’s framework, we can grasp the intricate nature of fascism, which transcends traditional political boundaries. Fascism embodies a form of palingenetic populist ultranationalism — a vision of the nation reborn, akin to a phoenix emerging from the ruins of societal decline, striving to restore its past glory and moral vitality. This ideology is notably versatile, giving rise to variants like National Bolshevism and National Anarchism, which occupy a Third Position outside the conventional left-right political spectrum. Griffin describes fascism as fostering a holistic idealist worldview that profoundly shapes society, blending collective will with a nostalgic yet forward-thinking pursuit of national renewal.

Grounded in idealist philosophy and leaning toward social humanism, fascism underscores the pivotal role of human consciousness in shaping societal structures. It weaves together populism, ultranationalism, mythic narratives, and syndicalist elements, all built on a foundation of philosophical idealism. Through Griffin’s lens, fascism emerges as a dynamic and pragmatic ideology, driving deep societal transformation and a revival of national identity, with the aim of sparking a renaissance that reinvigorates the nation’s spirit and purpose. Fascism seeks not only to create a unified collective identity but also to establish a robust and cohesive national community. Ultimately, fascism can be characterized as a form of palingenetic populist ultranationalism, fueled by a powerful ambition to both rejuvenate the nation’s Spirit and assert its unquestionable sovereignty and dominance.

“It is evident that an investigation of fascism, an examination of it, not only as a specific regime in a specific country, but as an operating world concept, is a legitimate and possible enterprise. We can, in fact, line up a series of characteristics, profiles, purposes and dreams, which gives us with perfect clarity the exact figure of fascism, as a global phenomenon. In the sense of that concept, and only in it, it is possible to speak of fascism outside of Italy, that is, the word acquires universalist capacity.”

— Ramiro Ledesma Ramos, ¿Fascismo en España?

---

For further exploration on related topics, consider the following: