What Is Fascism?

by Zoltanous

The question "What is Fascism?" has sparked a considerable amount of interest and debate among those seeking a clear understanding of the term. Unfortunately, attempts to provide a sincere answer have been complicated by misleading interpretations from figures such as Georgi Dimitrov and Jonah Goldberg, with Umberto Eco's explanation being particularly underwhelming to me. Readers who are familiar with my writings, will recognize my preference for Roger Griffin's concept and use of the term "generic fascism." I find Griffin's model to be the most practical and straightforward framework for analyzing fascism.

Griffin introduces the idea of the "fascist minimum," which outlines the essential characteristics that must be present for a movement or individual to qualify as fascist. He presents the concept of generic fascism as an umbrella term that covers a range of fascist entities, including figures, movements, practices, and policies. This concept of generic fascism could also be described as generic national socialism, or situated within the framework of a political Third Way or Third Position. According to Griffin, the ideal type of fascism is centered around a pivotal driving force and a fundamental blueprint for the world it seeks to create. These conclusions are drawn using a methodological approach called empathy, which involves understanding the political ideology from the viewpoint of its adherents. Ultimately, Griffin synthesizes his understanding of fascism into a concise single-sentence definition.

“A genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism.”

— Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism

Let’s break down the concepts here and how their synthesis is what creates Fascism. The three are: 

1. Palingenesis

2. Ultranationalism

3. Populism

Palingenesis: The theme of rebirth is prevalent in many traditions, from the spiritual renewal symbolized in religious rituals like baptism to the belief in the soul's reincarnation across different lifetimes. However, such time-honored concepts can be conflated with the fascist notion of rebirth, causing misunderstandings. Griffin clarifies that rebirth in fascism is often incorrectly associated with a mere wish for historical resurgence or the perpetuation of the status quo. This confusion can arise when the idea is improperly compared to palingenesis—a concept that finds its place in various ideologies including communism, conservatism, and liberalism. Political leaders have long utilized nostalgia to evoke a sense of a better past, epitomized by slogans such as "Make America Great Again," used by Presidents Reagan and Trump, and acknowledged by Bill Clinton, or "Return to normalcy," as promoted by Presidents Harding and Biden. However, in the context of fascism, rebirth is not about recapturing past glories but about invigorating a deep national identity through the establishment of a new societal structure.

Fascism diverges from conservative and reactionary thought, as it doesn't seek to simply maintain the status quo or resurrect former regimes. Its ambition is to craft an unprecedented reality, inspired by what it perceives as the immutable essence of the nation's legacy. Historian A. James Gregor has observed that such enduring elements are often expressed in civilizational myths that tap into ethnic identities, like the Aryan-centric Germania for the Germans, Romanita for the Italians, Hispanidad for the Spaniards, Eurasia for the Russians, Hakko Ichiu for the Japanese, Wenming for the Chinese, and Akhand Bharat for the Indians. He points out that fascist ideology also assimilates Nietzsche's concept of the "Good European."

Fascism builds upon the Aryan legend to craft a vision of a spiritually and culturally enriched new existence, forming a hierarchical society that esteems these aspects beyond mere historical resurgence. It’s often referred to as “revolutionary organic nationalism,” committed to disrupting the established order through a range of tactics, from legal political maneuvers to force and possible revolution. When in power, fascism seeks to create a distinctive new epoch deeply entwined with an ultranationalist, Aryan-centric ideology. This drive is termed Rooted Modernism (Reactionary Modernism), a variant of modernity deeply enmeshed with elemental, idealized values. Rather than opposing modernism, fascism seeks a version that reforms the present-day state through rejuvenation or palingenesis, imagining a modernity that discards current perceived decay in favor of a future molded by a specific Aryan idealism, using particular material and aesthetic practices characteristic of each fascist group. The architectural style known as stripped classicism, which was employed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, illustrates this idea, merging classic motifs with modernist styles to symbolize progress rooted in a revered history. Stripped classicism is not exclusively tied to fascist states; it has been utilized by different governments to express varied ideological narratives. Fascist movements were particularly attracted to it for its dual symbolism of modern progress and historical magnificence, fostering a vision for the future anchored in "healthy and organic" principles. The Volkswagen car, designed with influence from Hitler to be a "people's car," embodies this notion, representing modernity in the form of transport for the ideal "family." Its design philosophy was so significant that it was included in the 2006 "Modernism: Designing a New World" exhibition, showcasing its enduring influence.

Fascism's efforts to initiate a new era, reminiscent of historical virtues, can be likened to a phoenix rising anew from its ashes—a metaphor for transformation and renewal. This echoes the Hegelian concept of "sublation," where the old structure is both negated and preserved, paving the way for a new, elevated order. Fascism seeks to deconstruct the existing system but maintain selected cherished elements to forge a societal model it deems superior. Okakura Kakuzō captures the essence of this rooted modernism as the "living advaitism (non-dualism) which welcomes the new form without losing the old essence."

Ultranationalism: Ultranationalism, especially when linked to fascist ultra-nations, is an intense form of nationalism that elevates one state or people's interests above all others. It differs from regular nationalism with its belief in the inherent superiority of a particular nation, often coupled with xenophobia and a mythical focus on national unity as if the nation were a single living entity. It encourages a personified view of the nation and usually backs authoritarian governance. This ideology paves the way for the formation of fascist corporate states and endorses cooperation across social classes. The economy is organized via entities like Guilds, Corporations, Estates, and Syndicates, leading to a tightly controlled society envisioned as a collective organism.

At times, conservatism can manifest a form of ultranationalism that stands apart from fascism. This type focuses on xenophobia and the concept of an organic society as means to safeguard existing or bygone social frameworks from perceived deterioration. Figures such as Francisco Franco and António de Oliveira Salazar are emblematic of this stance, employing ultranationalism to protect and uphold time-honored institutions like the monarchy and the church. These components are deemed essential in sustaining the power hierarchies they endorse. By emphasizing the importance of these institutions, conservatism seeks to prevent their weakening and ensure the endurance of their ideological heritage.

What is fascist ultranationalism? Here it means: 

“An overtly anti-liberal, anti-parliamentary form of nationalism (which precludes the palingenetic patriotism of De Gaulle, a Thatcher, or even Yeltsin from being fascist), but to embrace the vast range of ethnocentrisms, which arise from the many permutations in which racism can express itself as a rationalized form of xenophobia. It is this multivalence and flexibility which accounts for the way my “fascist minimum” covers the various concepts of the Italian race accommodated by Fascism just as well as Euro-Fascism (‘Europe of a hundred flags’) which has become so important since the war.”

— Roger Griffin, The Palingenetic Core of Fascist Ideology

Ethnocentrism often stems from an Aryan Civilizational mythology that shapes the character of ultranationalism and creates a unified historical saga. At the heart of fascist ultranationalism is a strategy designed to defend the ideology from outside upheavals and to shape a future firmly rooted in its foundational beliefs. The credibility of this originating myth is established through:

“Deeply mythicized narratives of past cultural or political periods of historical greatness or of old scores to settle against alleged enemies.”

— Roger Griffin, The Palingenetic Core of Fascist Ideology

“Vulgarized forms of physical anthropology, genetics, and eugenics to rationalize ideas of national superiority and destiny, of degeneracy and subhumanness”. 

— Roger Griffin, The Palingenetic Core of Fascist Ideology

Fascism perceives a stark rift between a glorified foundational period and the present, which it views as tainted by detrimental influences. It blames this decline on external forces that have diluted the nation's true essence. The objective of fascism, therefore, is to purge, dismantle, and eliminate what it considers the decay of modernity, setting the stage for a fusion of ultranationalism and renewal. It is crucial to understand that not all fascistic ideologies uniformly rely on racial or eugenic justifications, as was the case with Nazi Germany and its Nordic myth. For example, the Brazilian Integralist Action demonstrates that ultranationalist movements and their associated myths can be based on a collective sense of a varied, multicultural identity. In this context, the focus lies on protecting and revitalizing the nation's distinct cultural heritage, rather than on a rigid commitment to racial purity or eugenic principles.

Roger Griffin remarks that:

“One of the most original foundational myths, blending protochronic with Golden Age fantasies, was developed by the Brazilian Integralist Action (AIB). Given the complex racial inter-mixing in a country where indigenous peoples and the descendants of generations of Portuguese colonizers and their African slaves had intermarried through centuries, Plínio Salgado could not indulge in any scientistic notions of biological purity, eugenics or a mythic ancestral super-race.

Instead, for him, the essence of the Brazilian-ness (Brasilidade) that would provide the cohesive spiritual force needed for the country’s rebirth lay precisely in its unique ethnic and cultural blend which had made the rise of Brazil as a powerful modern economy and political nation possible. The AIB thus celebrated the very miscegenation so feared by Nazi, Legionary, Hungarist, and Ustaše racists.

Until his movement was banned by the dictator Getúlio Vargas in 1938, Salgado campaigned for Brazil to be seen as an ideal laboratory in which to demonstrate the power of a racially mixed society to revitalize a nation both spiritually and culturally, and hence politically and economically, and so lay the foundations of the ‘fourth era of humanity’- With Salgado safely exiled to Portugal, Vargas was able to promote the AIB’s conciliatory myth of racial blending under his own regime.”

— Roger Griffin, Fascism - Key Concepts In Political Theory

It's important to correct the misconception that ultranationalism is exclusively tied to the framework of a nation-state. Ultrananationalism can take on forms that go beyond traditional national boundaries. For example, it can encompass an entire race, forming a supranational identity that supersedes the boundaries of individual states. This can be observed in cases where multicultural societies give way to areas characterized by ethnic homogeneity, a notion referred to as ethno-pluralism. Instead of advocating for a single, all-encompassing fascist state, this belief system supports the establishment of a mosaic of distinct, self-governing regions across the globe. Furthermore, ultranationalism can manifest without any formal state structure, as illustrated by National Anarchism, which proposes that the ideal ultra-nation consists of racially homogenous communities functioning without a central government. Regardless of the particular logic or form it takes, the ultranationalist goal within fascism always relies on uniting a group of "organic members" to achieve its vision.

Populism: Populism is a political approach that aims to appeal to the everyday people who believe they are overlooked or oppressed by the ruling elite. The identity of the "common people" and the "power elites" is flexible and changes according to the perspective in question. Taking a Marxist lens as an example, populism portrays the struggle as one between the proletariat (common people) and the bourgeoisie (power elite). Populism generally seeks to gather the masses or a so-called silent majority who feel dominated by a smaller, more influential minority. In the context of conservative populism, the masses are rallied to protect traditional institutions and values they perceive as being undermined by these elites. These elites are often labeled with terms such as "cultural Marxists," "social justice warriors," or "globalists" by conservative populist advocates.

In the case of White Nationalist populism, the "common people" are racially categorized as "White," while "power elites" are often seen as "non-White" or particular minority groups like Jews, who are accused of championing multiculturalism. However, it's critical to note that White Nationalism is distinct from fascism. The goal of White Nationalism to cultivate and maintain a White national identity is fundamentally racist, as it presupposes a racial hierarchy that requires white superiority or separation. This belief system predates fascism and can be present in diverse political ideologies and structures.

Throughout history, White Nationalism and White Supremacy have manifested in various ways, such as the actions of the United States' founding fathers, who were primarily liberal humanists shaped by the Enlightenment. Significantly, fascism vehemently rejects these liberal foundations. In the United States, both historical and current policies have disproportionately affected people of color, ranging from slavery and the prison industrial complex to segregation and biased lending practices. It is imperative to acknowledge that one does not have to be a fascist to hold racist beliefs, and conflating the two can lead to a reductive interpretation of the different forms of racism. For White Nationalism to evolve into fascism, it would require an ultranationalist resurgence that completely abandons any anti-fascist liberal doctrines and values. So, how do we define fascist populism? In this context, populism is understood as:

“A generic term for the “people power” generated when enough of the ‘masses’ are effectively mobilized by mythic energies, whether spontaneous or contrived.”

— Roger Griffin, The Political Core of Fascist Ideology

Ultranationalist populism conceptualizes the populace defined by its ultranational identity as a united "organic mass" that needs to be galvanized. The objective is to cultivate a powerful entity poised to initiate a profound transformation, striving to construct a new societal framework. This depiction reveals that ultranationalist populism can be characterized as a palingenetic movement, one that seeks a radical rejuvenation and revival of the existing social order.

“The vehicle of revolutionary awakening may be the ‘whole people’ (or rather all those deemed to be healthy members of it), rather than a particular class or social group. However, in the nation’s current state of decadence the majority are ‘asleep’, contaminated by ‘alien’, i.e. patricidal or ethnocidal values, so that, as with Leninism, a vanguard is necessary to undertake the heroic task of spreading the vision and seizing power. In the new regime some of the vanguard of the ‘movement’ will become the new ruling elite, a ‘natural elite’ based not on class, power or wealth, but on their degree of commitment to the ultimate vision of the new national order and their value to its realization. A deep ambivalence towards the ‘masses’ as both credulous sheep and potential heroes is thus intrinsic to Fascism”

— Roger Griffin, The Political Core of Fascist Ideology

Conclusions

By using Roger Griffin's analysis, we can appreciate fascism’s complexity beyond conventional politics. Fascism represents a type of palingenetic populist ultranationalism—a vision of the nation reborn, like a phoenix rising from the ashes of societal decay, aspiring to reclaim its former grandeur and moral integrity. This ideology is marked by its remarkable adaptability, giving rise to variants such as National Bolshevism and National Anarchism, which reflect a Third Position beyond the traditional left-right political divide. According to Griffin, fascism cultivates a comprehensive idealist worldview that deeply influences the fabric of society, marrying the collective will with a nostalgic yet forward-looking drive for national rejuvenation.

With its roots in idealist philosophy and a bend towards social humanism, fascism emphasizes the critical importance of human consciousness in shaping society. It is an ideology that intricately interlaces populism, ultranationalism, mythic narratives, and syndicalist elements on a foundation of philosophical idealism. Through the lens of Griffin's analysis, fascism is revealed as a fluid and pragmatic ideology. It represents a force for profound societal transformation and a resurgence of national identity, aiming for a renaissance that revitalizes the nation's spirit and purpose. Fascism seeks not only to forge a collective identity but also to establish a powerful and unified national community. Ultimately, fascism can be distilled into a form of palingenetic populist ultranationalism. This ideology is propelled by a commanding aspiration to both revitalize the nation's Spirit and establish its indisputable sovereignty and supremacy.

“It is evident that an investigation of fascism, an examination of it, not only as a specific regime in a specific country, but as an operating world concept, is a legitimate and possible enterprise. We can, in fact, line up a series of characteristics, profiles, purposes and dreams, which gives us with perfect clarity the exact figure of fascism, as a global phenomenon. In the sense of that concept, and only in it, it is possible to speak of fascism outside of Italy, that is, the word acquires universalist capacity.”

— Ramiro Ledesma Ramos, ¿Fascismo en España?

---

For further exploration on related topics, consider the following: